The impact of the menstrual cycle on skin volatile profiles

Importance of the Topic

Understanding the variation of skin-emitted volatile compounds in relation to sex and the menstrual cycle is key for insights into host–vector interactions, personalized healthcare, and inclusive biological research.

Objectives and Overview

The study aimed to determine whether skin odour profiles differ by sex and fluctuate consistently across the menstrual cycle phases, and to assess the impact of these variations on mosquito attraction.

Methodology and Instrumentation

• Subjects: 16 female participants sampled at three menstrual phases and 16 male controls
• Volatile Collection: Push–pull pump system with Tenax GR–Carboxen TD liners for skin headspace sampling
• Analysis: Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Pegasus GC-HRT+ 4D TOFMS) using Rxi-5ms and DB17ms columns
• Data Processing: GCImage software
• Statistical Analysis: Random Forest, mixed-effects PLS-DA, Limma analysis, and linear mixed-effects models

Main Results and Discussion

• Sex Differences: Random Forest identified key compounds distinguishing male and female odour profiles with 75% accuracy; mixed-effects PLS-DA confirmed consistent sex-specific patterns.
• Menstrual Cycle Variability: Phase classification reached up to 82% accuracy; Limma analysis revealed cycle-dependent changes in fatty acids, alcohols, and terpenoid derivatives.
• Mosquito Attraction: Behavioural assays with and without CO₂ showed no significant preference for either sex or specific menstrual phases, indicating stable host attractiveness across conditions.

Benefits and Practical Applications

• Improved vector control strategies by confirming consistent host attractiveness across female cycle phases
• Enhanced design of inclusive clinical studies by demonstrating reproducible odour markers in women
• Potential for novel non-invasive biomarkers in personalized diagnostics and monitoring of hormonal states

Future Trends and Possibilities

• Integration of untargeted omics approaches for deeper profiling of volatile signatures
• Development of wearable sensors for real-time monitoring of skin volatiles
• Application in precision pest management by adapting lures to stable human odour profiles
• Expansion to other vector–host systems and diverse populations to ensure broad applicability

Conclusion

This study demonstrates clear sex-specific skin volatile patterns and modest fluctuations across the menstrual cycle, while showing that mosquito attraction remains unaffected by these factors. The findings support more inclusive research designs and open avenues for biomarker discovery and vector control innovations.

References

• Willingham (2022), Nature
• Woitowich et al. (2020), eLife